Summary

The Peruvian Amazon faces imminent threats that require urgent and coordinated action by the State. In this context, the article aims to highlight the importance of activating the Amazon Protection Brigades, a crucial measure aimed at preserving biodiversity, strategic resources and, therefore, national sovereignty. The article examines geostrategic relevance of the Amazon, emphasizing the primary role of the Armed Forces, especially the Peruvian Army (EP), in addressing this mission. In addition, the importance of achieving a synergy between political will, multisectoral effort and the population’s willingness to take military action is highlighted. The urgency of this activation is positioned as a priority of national interest, not only because of its essentiality for future generations, but also because of its impact at a global level. It is essential to raise awareness among all sectors about the importance of this mission that transcends borders and promises a future of preservation, prosperity, and security for the Amazon as well as for the country as a whole.

Keywords: Peruvian Amazon, contemporary threats, territorial integrity, national security, geostrategy.

Introduction

In the heart of South America, an immense green lung generates life, balancing ecosystems and maintaining the climatic stability of our planet.^[1] The Peruvian Amazon is a natural jewel and stands as one of the Earth’s most precious treasures, spanning extensive borders that connect Peru with Ecuador, Colombia, and Brazil.^[2] However, this biodiversity paradise is at a critical crossroads, threatened by a range of illicit activities that go far beyond its borders.

Peru’s Amazon is an ecosystem like no other, a symphony of life that is home to biological diversity that surpasses any other corner of the planet. Within its confines, there is an uncountable variety of animal and plant species living together in a delicate natural balance that influences the health of the entire globe.^[3] Its degradation is not just a local issue; its effects, such as water pollution, environmental deforestation, the extinction of some species of flora and fauna, as well as the displacement or migration of indigenous communities, spread throughout the planet and impact the climate, water cycles, and global biodiversity. In the case of indigenous communities, many of them end up linked to drug trafficking and illegal mining, because they are victims of poverty and do not have sufficient education to enter the labor market.^[4] For this reason, the Amazon is in danger. The turbulence of illegal activities and transnational crimes affects both their ecological integrity and national security. Illegal mining, indiscriminate logging, drug trafficking, human trafficking, and the presence of Residual Organized Armed Groups (GAORs) have woven a web of threats that undermine the stability of the region.^[5] As Durkheim, the father of modern sociology, pointed out in his theory of human action, human beings internalize the values they perceive in their community, make them part of their discourse, and their actions are based on them.^[6] Under this principle, the threats described are a danger, since they are constantly present in the daily lives of citizens. This leads to these practices being naturalized or normalized. Therefore, the next generations could become indolent and value their modus operandi as part of their modus vivendi. Thus, these challenges far from being exclusively environmental, have deep roots in the security and stability of the nation.

At this juncture, the Armed Forces, especially the EP, as custodians of the terrestrial dimension, emerge as the last line of defense for the Amazon through the activation of the Amazon Protection Brigades, which introduce a new era in safeguarding this vast territory. However, this path is not without obstacles, both internal and external; Tensions between tradition and transformation, reluctance to cede entrenched roles, and the imperative need to adapt to a changing world chart the path to a sustainable future for the region.

The Amazon in Imminent Danger

The vast and lush Peruvian Amazon is positioned as one of the world’s most impressive natural treasures.^[7] Its dense forests, extensive rivers and a wide diversity of flora and fauna have earned it the title of “The Lungs of the Planet”.^[8] However, behind the majesty of its beauty, lie latent vulnerabilities that threaten its wealth.

Its biodiversity is home to approximately 10% of the known species on Earth, from jaguars and pink dolphins to unique medicinal plants.^[9] However, it is not only breathtakingly beautiful, but essential to the global ecological balance. Sadly, deforestation and habitat degradation threaten countless species, many of which have yet to be discovered, and weaken ecosystem resilience to climate change. According to the 2021 Amazon Assessment Report, “At the local or regional scale, climate change and anthropogenic land-use change are already impacting Amazonian ecosystems in both the components of biodiversity, the carbon cycle, the hydrological cycle or biomass burning.”^[10] It is clear that the transformation of the Amazon is undeniable and requires immediate attention. In addition to its ecological importance, the Amazon region is home to numerous indigenous communities that depend on it for their livelihoods.^[11] However, internal migration plays an important role in this area. The departments of Ucayali, San Martín and Madre de Dios are substantially attractive for internal migration in the Amazon, and since 1988, have experienced a net positive migration rate. It is important to note that Madre de Dios was the department that received the largest number of migrants in recent decades.^[12]

From the above, it can be deduced that the Amazonian population has experienced internal migration processes, with Madre de Dios standing out as the region that received the largest number of new residents. It is crucial to highlight that this area has significant rates of illegal mining and deforestation.^[13] As a consequence, environmental degradation has a direct impact on these communities, causing the loss of their traditional ways of life and the decline of ancestral knowledge.

The aforementioned vulnerabilities transcend biodiversity, as the depths of the lush Amazon rainforest have been infiltrated and established by illegal activities that threaten to destabilize the region and compromise national security. Transnational Organized Crime (TOC) has found refuge in the vastness of the Amazon,^[14] in all its forms. Illegal mining is another worrisome aspect, polluting rivers and soils with mercury, destroying large areas of forest, and generating lasting environmental scars, as well as displacing entire communities.^[15] For its part, the Illicit Drug Trafficking (TID) uses the dense vegetation as a shield, occupying considerable sectors of the region for coca leaf cultivation, processing, and distribution. This, coupled with widespread corruption, increases social violence.^[16] The Amazon is also fertile ground for human trafficking and other related crimes that often operate in the shadows, outside the operational reach of authorities.^[17] It is important to note that, along with these threats, the presence of GAORs in the Putumayo sector represents an additional element of danger.^[18] These dissidents emerged after the signing of the peace agreement between the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the Colombian government in 2016. They sought refuge in the jungle and are now financed through illegal activities, defying state authority in remote areas and increasing insecurity and instability in the Amazon. This impact extends beyond borders.^[19]

In this scenario, it is clear that the Peruvian Amazon requires solid and sustainable protection. Consequently, in 2019, the 6th Special Forces Brigade, based in Madre de Dios, was launched as a pilot unit.^[20] In this sense, the activation of the Amazon Protection Brigades is presented as a forceful response by the State to comprehensively confront these threats and guarantee the protection of resources, national security, and prosperity in the region. This initiative also has a positive influence on the preservation of the greatest natural asset globally and on the future of generations.

The Promise of the Amazon: The Global Chessboard, Transnational Challenges, and Strategic Opportunities

Beneath the lush foliage of the Amazon lies a richness that transcends its ecological value. This vast rainforest is home to an abundance of mineral, energy, and economic resources that, if properly managed, can drive Peru’s sustainable development and contribute to the prosperity of its people.^[21]

The Amazon possesses significant reserves of oil and natural gas, energy resources vital to the country’s growth and economic stability. Its soils also hide mineral deposits including gold, silver, copper, and other valuable minerals. Responsible exploitation could represent a significant source of income, boost the economy, and create employment opportunities in all related communities.^[22] However, gold in particular attracted thousands of illegal prospectors, which has led to negative impacts on the environment and society. Indiscriminate logging of forests, water pollution, human trafficking and organized crime are some of the related crimes associated with this uncontrolled exploitation.^[23] These are closely linked to each other and pose a threat to the integrity and biodiversity of the Amazon, leaving lasting scars.

The region’s biodiversity also offers opportunities in the fields of biotechnology and medicine. There are unknown plants and species that could contain invaluable chemical compounds with medical and pharmaceutical applications. Research in this area could not only lead to advances in medicine, but also to revenue generation, through the commercialization of natural products.^[24] In addition, the Amazon is a potential source of clean and renewable energy. Its rivers, with their powerful flows, offer opportunities for hydroelectric power generation, as well as solar and wind energy production.^[25] However, the exploitation of these poses challenges on a global scale. Large corporations and countries without access to these resources are watching with interest the evolution of their conservation and could compete for a share of them. This underscores the need for careful and strategic management of the aforementioned assets.^[26]

On the other hand, TOC, and drug trafficking, which are often complementary to the exploitation of natural resources, have a reach that goes beyond national borders and serve as a source of financing for their illicit activities. Criminal networks maintain their presence and operate with impunity in the Amazon region, taking advantage of the lack of state presence in remote areas. This not only exacerbates insecurity but threatens regional peace.^[27] The latter manifests itself in the absence of law enforcement, border surveillance systems and road infrastructure at the most remote points.

The struggle for the control and preservation of the Peruvian Amazon, including global priorities such as the fight against climate change and the search for clean and renewable energy sources, represents a challenge to national security. Consequently, the activation of the Amazon Protection Brigades not only implies the protection of nature, but also the control of the strategic management of these resources by the State. Balancing economic exploitation with environmental preservation and national security will be crucial to ensuring a sustainable future for the region and the Peruvian territory.

Redefining Institutional Missions for a Sustainable Future

The Armed Forces, through the EP, will expand its traditional strategic functions and devote greater attention to the role of supporting national development in the face of an unprecedented challenge: addressing the complex threats affecting the Peruvian Amazon. Given the limited capacity of various state institutions in charge of safeguarding the resources of the Amazon and protecting indigenous communities, it is necessary to activate the Protection Brigades. These not only represent a paradigm shift in the way the Armed Forces operate in the terrestrial dimension, but they also recognize that national security transcends traditional borders.^[28]

These brigades, in addition to being fighting forces, will be constituted as guardians of the Peruvian Amazon, committed to the preservation of its ecological integrity and the security of its communities. This responsibility entails a broadening of roles, ranging from environmental conservation to humanitarian assistance and sustainable infrastructure development. Therefore, this military transformation is not only a necessity, but an opportunity for the Armed Forces to adapt to an ever-changing world. Overcoming resistance to this change is essential to ensure the survival and preservation of the Amazon.

This reorientation of efforts implies a profound change in the mentality of some sectors of the military. Moving beyond traditional paradigms and adjusting to the changing realities of global security is essential to the success of this mission. Therefore, it is essential to understand that current and future needs do not imply weakening the fundamental role or renouncing the essential values and principles of the institution, but rather strengthening its capacity to protect and serve the country in an integral manner.

History is full of examples of institutions that, in resisting change, have been left behind. For this reason, this transformation of thinking in Army professionals opens doors to new opportunities for cooperation and coordination with other sectors of society. The collaboration and interoperability of the institutions that make up the defense sector (the Army, through the Amazon Protection Brigades), government agencies, civil society, and the private sector are essential to address the multidimensional challenges facing the Amazon.^[29] A case that can be mentioned is the one developed in the sector of the Valley of the Apurimac, Ene and Mantaro rivers (VRAEM), known as the VRAEM Development Commission (CODEVRAEM), 2011-2016, considered a great example of synergy and multisectoral articulation. As expressed by Colonel Rojas Merino, the importance of political decision-making and leadership is critical to addressing the challenges in this area. The Armed Forces have been present in this region for more than 30 years, which shows that the problems in the VRAEM are not limited to military and police issues. The comprehensive participation of the State, as well as clear political decision-making and leadership, is required to make significant progress in resolving the problems in this area.^[30]

So, the collaborative and interoperability work that was carried out at CODEVRAEM shows that this type of threat must be addressed in a comprehensive manner by the State. Hence the need for flexible thinking to work more efficiently. The proposed initiative not only represents a milestone in the evolution of the Armed Forces, but rather, it is an invitation to all responsible sectors and the organized population to unite in a unified effort to address the specific problems in the region.

Amazon Foresight: Strategically Vital

On the geopolitical chessboard of the 21st century, the Amazon, with its vast dimensions and natural wealth, emerges as a geopolitical asset of incalculable value. In an era of increasing global competition for essential resources, it becomes a vital point of interest and rivalry between nations. The protection of this region is not only focused on preserving biodiversity, but also on ensuring Peru’s position in an increasingly competitive and resource-dependent world.^[31] Strategic minerals and renewable energy sources make this region a sought-after asset in the global economic environment, which not only constitutes a strategic advantage at the regional level, but also projects Peru’s influence in the global arena.^[32] Therefore, it is crucial that the State update itself according to these scopes.

The activation of the Amazon Protection Brigades would strengthen the State’s presence in critical areas, which are integrated into the Border Surveillance System. In addition, it would send a clear signal at the international level about Peru’s determination to protect its sovereignty and strategic resources. The Amazon is a hotspot where security and economy are closely intertwined due to the presence of essential resources, such as strategic minerals and an abundance of fresh water, which attract regional and global actors seeking to ensure their access to ensure their survival.^[33]

The forward-looking vision of a sustainable economy in the Amazon goes beyond the exploitation of resources. It must be a comprehensive approach that balances prosperity with environmental conservation. Investment in clean technologies, the promotion of ecotourism, and the implementation of conservation policies can transform the region into an example of how its economic development can coexist with the preservation of the environment.

The State’s Commitment to Necessary Equipment and Technology

The protection of the Peruvian Amazon cannot fall exclusively to the Armed Forces. A strong alliance between political sectors, private investment and organized civil society, among other actors, is needed in a joint effort to preserve this invaluable natural heritage and ensure national security.^[34] Therefore, statesmen, decision-makers, and various government leaders have a responsibility to implement policies and legal frameworks that support the activation of the Amazon Protection Brigades.

The initiatives transcend all kinds of ideological and political positions, demanding a forward-looking vision of the State that prioritizes the conservation of the Peruvian Amazon above any individual interest. In this regard, the active participation of the population is equally essential; Citizen awareness and adherence are crucial.^[35] Consequently, it is imperative that society understands the importance of the Amazon and gets involved in the protection of its vital resources.^[36] Thus, education and awareness-raising are powerful tools to mobilize the population in this common cause.

The commitment of the EP, as guardian of the terrestrial dimension, is the central pillar of this alliance. Their experience and ability to operate in challenging environments such as the jungle are indisputable.^[37] Their intervention is essential to ensure the effectiveness and success of the various military operations and actions to be initiated in complex terrain and demanding environmental conditions. This will require specialized equipment and technology, from land and river vehicles adapted for difficult terrain and adverse weather conditions.

Logistics and sourcing in the jungle pose unique challenges. To ensure the success of units deployed in the Amazon, a strategic approach is required.^[38] This means ensuring that they have the necessary resources to carry out their missions in a sustainable manner. One of the fundamental pillars in this process is integrated logistics support, a mechanism that allows an effective response in a remote and dynamic operations environment.^[39] For example, in the case of Brazil, “… plans and programs such as GIAHS and GIAHS [which] have been instrumental in enabling the Armed Forces to combat the TOC and related crimes along the border line and along rivers, taking away the initiative and capacity of these criminal organizations.”^[40] Likewise, in the case of Colombia, the research indicates that the legal framework was adapted to achieve the mitigation of threats. Subsequently, the corresponding resources were made available for the achievement of the proposed objectives. This combination of elements has made it possible to detect illegal trafficking, neutralize 38 clandestine airstrips used to transport the alkaloid, immobilize four aircraft, and seize 22 tons of cocaine. In addition, during 2021, more than 5,000 members of different GAOs were neutralized, including those captured, brought to justice, demobilized, and killed during the development of military operations.^[41]

Both cases show that a total commitment is required from decision-makers and state officials to establish the legal framework and allocate the necessary budget to support military operations and actions. In this sense, having state-of-the-art technologies is imperative to ensure the efficiency of these operations. Essential technological tools include tracking systems, satellite coverage and monitoring, drones, and geographic information systems. The technological support of the institutes of the Armed Forces and the participating multi-sectoral units is crucial.

Then, with these devices, valuable data would be provided that would facilitate the effective recognition of military operations and actions in the jungle, from obtaining Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance to Integrated Command and Control. This would ensure effective liaison and coordination between maneuver units and the entity that runs them, resulting in a streamlined military decision-making process. In this way, technology plays a crucial role, and its acquisition should be considered as an investment by the Peruvian State. This would ensure that the Amazon Protection Brigades have the necessary support to face threats and challenges.

Conclusions

The protection of the Peruvian Amazon is a commitment of transcendental importance that demands the union and commitment of all sectors of society. It represents a pact with the future, a promise to preserve this priceless natural and geostrategic treasure for future generations. To carry out this mission, it is essential that the Armed Forces take on a proactive and visionary role, and it is up to the EP to lead this effort with its experience and logistical capacity.

In addition to being a national concern, the Amazon region represents an issue of global interest. In a world increasingly focused on sustainability and ecological balance, the protection of this area acquires a strategic relevance that goes beyond borders. Consequently, its preservation not only safeguards territorial sovereignty and national security, but also contributes to Peru’s ecological balance and geopolitical stability worldwide.

Finally, within its fundamental strategic role, the EP is entrusted with the preservation of independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity, which positions it as a leader in the protection of the Amazon. This leadership transcends military operations and actions, involving close synergy and cooperation with other sectors, from the political sphere to civil society. The urgent activation of the Amazon Protection Brigades should be considered a priority issue of national interest, a task that requires a determined and coordinated commitment from all the actors involved.

Endnotes:

1. Vivian García, “La Amazonía: contexto, amenazas y perspectivas de una zona geoestratégica de disputa política”, ponencia presentada en el XXVI Congreso de la Asociación Latinoamericana de Sociología, Guadalajara, 2007, Asociación Latinoamericana de Sociología, https://cdsa.aacademica.org/000-066/318.pdf ↑
2. Centro de Estudios Teológicos de la Amazonía, “Perfiles históricos de la Amazonía Peruana”, 1994, http://www.iiap.org.pe/upload/publicacion/L009.pdf ↑
3. Ibid. ↑
4. Centro Nacional de Planeamiento Estratégico (Ceplan), “Amazonía peruana: dinámicas territoriales y retos para el desarrollo sostenible”, 2019, https://geo.ceplan.gob.pe/uploads/2020_Amazon%C3%ADa_peruana_din%C3%A1micas_territoriales_y_retos_para_el_desarrollo_sostenible.pdf ↑
5. Manolo Eduardo, “Grupos Armados Organizados Residuales y Amenazas Transfronterizas en el Alto Putumayo”, Revista Seguridad y Poder Terrestre 1, no. 2 (octubre-diciembre de 2022), DOI: https://doi.org/10.56221/spt.v1i2.15 ↑
6. Federico Lorenc, “Émile Durkheim y la teoría sociológica de la acción”, Andamios. Revista de Investigación Social, 11, no. 26 (September-December 2014): 299-232, https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/628/62841544011.pdf ↑
7. Guillaume Fountaine, “La globalización de la Amazonía: una perspectiva andina”, Iconos. Revista de Ciencias Sociales 25 (May 2006): 25-36, https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/509/Resumenes/Resumen_50918253003_1.pdf ↑
8. Ibid. ↑
9. Enrique Amayo, “¿Por qué estudiar la formación histórica y la problemática actual de la Amazonia? Espiral, Estudios sobre Estado y Sociedad V, no. 15 (May-August 1999): 72-104, http://148.202.18.157/sitios/publicacionesite/pperiod/espiral/espiralpdf/Espiral15/72-104.pdf ↑
10. Panel Científico por la Amazonía (PCA), “Impactos de la deforestación y el cambio climático sobre la biodiversidad, los procesos ecológicos y la adaptación ambiental, Informe de evaluación de Amazonía 2021”, 2021, p. 29, https://www.laamazoniaquequeremos.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Chapter-23-ES-Bound-Oct-20.pdf ↑
11. Castro, Jaime, “Geopolítica aplicada al Perú y los negocios internacionales”, Universidad San Martín de Porres, 2020, https://www.administracion.usmp.edu.pe/revista-digital/wp-content/uploads/sites/34/2020/06/CAP%C3%8DTULO-4-Geopol%C3%ADtica-aplicada-al-Per%C3%BA.pdf ↑
12. Centro Nacional de Planeamiento Estratégico (Ceplan), “Amazonía peruana: dinámicas territoriales y retos para el desarrollo sostenible”, p. 18, https://geo.ceplan.gob.pe/uploads/2020_Amazon%C3%ADa_peruana_din%C3%A1micas_territoriales_y_retos_para_el_desarrollo_sostenible.pdf ↑
13. Manolo Eduardo, “Intervención del Estado peruano en La Pampa: Un esfuerzo integral pendiente”, Centro de Estudios Estratégicos del Ejército (CEEEP), 2021, https://ceeep.mil.pe/2021/05/18/intervencion-del-estado-peruano-en-la-pampa-un-esfuerzo-integral-pendiente/ ↑
14. Máximo Olaya, “Visión geopolítica de la Amazonía peruana y su impacto social, económico y político”, Defensa CAEN 2, no. 1 (November-February 2021), https://recide.caen.edu.pe/index.php/Recide/article/view/52 ↑
15. Ibid. ↑
16. Ibid. ↑
17. Ibid. ↑
18. Manolo Eduardo, “Grupos Armados Organizados Residuales y Amenazas Transfronterizas en el Alto Putumayo”, Revista Seguridad y Poder Terrestre 1, no. 2 (October-December 2022), DOI: https://doi.org/10.56221/spt.v1i2.15 ↑
19. Ibid. ↑
20. Víctor Miranda, “Cambio Climático: Relación Intrínseca con la Seguridad y la Defensa”, Revista Seguridad y Poder Terrestre 2, nro. 1 (Jan-March 2023): 21-35, DOI: https://doi.org/10.56221/spt.v2i1.19 ↑
21. Vivian García, “La Amazonía: contexto, amenazas y perspectivas de una zona geoestratégica de disputa política”, ponencia presentada en el XXVI Congreso de la Asociación Latinoamericana de Sociología, Guadalajara, 2007, Asociación Latinoamericana de Sociología, https://cdsa.aacademica.org/000-066/318.pdf ↑
22. Ibid. ↑
23. Máximo Olaya, “Visión geopolítica de la Amazonía peruana y su impacto social, económico y político”, Defensa CAEN 2, no. 1 (November-February 2021), https://recide.caen.edu.pe/index.php/Recide/article/view/52 ↑
24. Nathalie Pabón, “Inseguridad y perspectivas de cooperación en la región amazónica”, Clacso, 2012, https://biblioteca.clacso.edu.ar/clacso/gt/20120413104850/prisma-8.pdf ↑
25. Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana, “Amazonía Peruana: Visión De Desarrollo, Potencialidades y Desafíos”, 2009, http://www.iiap.org.pe/upload/publicacion/PUBL907.pdf ↑
26. Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (Cepal), “Amazonia posible y sostenible”, 2013, https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/news/files/amazonia_posible_y_sostenible.pdf ↑
27. Manolo Eduardo, “Grupos Armados Organizados Residuales y Amenazas Transfronterizas en el Alto Putumayo”, Revista Seguridad y Poder Terrestre 1, no. 2 (October-December 2022), DOI: https://doi.org/10.56221/spt.v1i2.15 ↑
28. Ministerio de Defensa del Perú, “Plan Estratégico Institucional 2022-2026 del Ejército del Perú,” https://www.transparencia.gob.pe/enlaces/pte_transparencia_enlaces.aspx?id_entidad=10011&id_tema=5&ver=D ↑
29. Víctor Miranda, “Cambio Climático: Relación Intrínseca con la Seguridad y la Defensa”, Revista Seguridad y Poder Terrestre 2, no. 1 (January–March 2023): 21-35, DOI: https://doi.org/10.56221/spt.v2i1.19 ↑
30. Luis Rojas, “Las Estrategias en el VRAEM”, Pensamiento Conjunto 6 nro. 3 (2018): 63, https://www.pensamientoconjunto.com.pe/index.php/PC/article/view/68 ↑
31. Bernardo Salgado, “La relevancia geoestratégica de la Amazonía Sudamericana para los proyectos de poder de Estados Unidos y China (2001-2016),” 2021, https://www.ipea.gov.br/revistas/index.php/rtm/article/download/327/319/1272 ↑
32. Miguel Sierra, “Geoestrategia del Perú en el siglo XXI”, Instituto de Investigaciones Estratégicas de la Armada de México, 2018, https://cesnav.uninav.edu.mx/cesnav/ININVESTAM/docs/docs_analisis/da_26-18.pdf ↑
33. Gobierno del Perú, “Política de Defensa Nacional del Perú”, 2020, https://www.mindef.gob.pe/informacion/documentos/libroblanco/Capitulo_III.pdf ↑
34. Centro de Altos Estudios Nacionales (CAEN), Centro Nacional de Planeamiento Estratégico (Ceplan), y Centro de Estudios Estratégicos del Ejército de Perú, “Ambiente Estratégico 2022: Seguridad, Desarrollo y Defensa Nacional,” 2022, https://ceeep.mil.pe/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Ambiente-estrate%CC%81gico-2022.pdf ↑
35. Máximo Olaya, “Visión geopolítica de la Amazonía peruana y su impacto social, económico y político”, Defensa CAEN 2, no. 1 (November-February 2021), https://recide.caen.edu.pe/index.php/Recide/article/view/52 ↑
36. Guillaume Fontaine, “La globalización de la Amazonía: una perspectiva andina”, Iconos. Revista de Ciencias Sociales 25 (May 2006): 25-36, https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/509/Resumenes/Resumen_50918253003_1.pdf ↑
37. Ministerio de Defensa, “Política Nacional Multisectorial de Seguridad y Defensa Nacional al 2030, Resumen Ejecutivo,” 2022, https://cdn.www.gob.pe/uploads/document/file/3350044/RESUMEN%20EJECUTIVO%20PNMSDN%20AL%202030.pdf.pdf ↑
38. Paul Vera, “Enfoques y Retos de la Política de Seguridad y Defensa Nacional de Perú”, CEEEP, Ejército del Perú, 2021, https://ceeep.mil.pe/2021/05/27/enfoques-y-retos-de-la-politica-de-seguridad-y-defensa-nacional-de-peru/ ↑
39. Ibid. ↑
40. Juan Aristizabal, “Crimen Organizado Transnacional en la Triple Frontera entre Brasil, Colombia y Perú”, Centro de Estudios Estratégicos del Ejército (CEEEP), 2022, para. 47, https://ceeep.mil.pe/2022/11/17/crimen-organizado-transnacional-en-la-triple-frontera-entre-brasil-colombia-y-peru/ ↑
41. Geraldine Cook, “Colombia arroja resultados históricos ante la cadena de valor del narcotráfico”, Diálogo Américas, 2022, para. 4, https://dialogo-americas.com/es/articles/colombia-arroja-resultados-historicos-ante-la-cadena-de-valor-del-narcotrafico/#.YnQDItpByUk ↑